Aims of Education

                              

“Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world.”  - Nelson Mandela

 

Education plays a pivotal role in shaping the future of humanity. It is a powerful tool that can be used to accomplish certain goals (aims) of human life. These aims of education are widely contested and hotly debated. Scholars come up with diverse and divergent aims of education with supporting arguments. Even general public comes up with questions concerning aims of education, such as, should education prepare for social life, religious life or work life. The aims of education hold paramount importance because they give direction to human activates that define our future. This essay critically examines the diverse aims of education, compares the two main contradictory aims of education (preparation for workplace or life), and provides our concrete stance on the most crucial aim of education. 

 There is a vast diversity of educational aims and level of importance that each particular aim holds. Few crucial aims that we have critically evaluated in this essay include; knowledge aim, socio-cultural aim, employment aim, personal development aim, spiritual (religious) aim, and democratic aim. According to knowledge aim of education, individuals develop an understanding of themselves and the world around them. Renowned philosopher Aristotle argued that knowledge reception and utilization are crucial element for understanding the world. According to socio-cultural aim of education, culture holds great importance for communal life of the members of any particular society who share same norms, values and traditions. 

According to employment aim, education should prepare individuals for earning livelihood and becoming economically independent citizens. M.K Gandhi sums up this in following words, “true education ought to be for the boys and girls a kind of insurance against unemployment.” According to personal development aim, education provides students self-fulfillment, character building, and effective communication or self-expression skills. According to Spiritual (religious) aim, the sole aim of education should be development of the spiritual potentialities of the individuals that gives real strength to human soul and mind. According to democratic aim, education should promote democratic values, which are necessary for the success of democracy. These values include faith in democratic process, respect for dignity, freedom of expression, equality of opportunity, justice, tolerance, and resort to peaceful methods of conduct.

 

Alternative Models of Teacher Preparation

Tom O’Donoghue in the article “Alternative Models of Teacher Preparation” elaborate upon the changes in traditional methods of teacher preparation by the advent of alternative models of teacher preparation during 1980’s. These alternative training programs resulted from the research and funding carried out by private foundations and state governments. Three significant programs mentioned by Tom O’ Donoghue include; “New Teacher Project”, which focuses on provision of quality training to poor students with potential of becoming teachers; “Troops to Teachers”, which focuses on harnessing practical experience of ex-service officers (ex-military) in teaching students; and “Teach for” program that focuses on teaching poor children on a massive level for the pride of particular country. The main emphases of the article revolve around the concept of “blended learning” which means, “distance learning through aid of technology” as the major component of alternative models of teacher preparation. Donoghue argues that the creation of an effective distance education system for teacher preparation and professional development provide high quality learning experiences to students interested in becoming teachers. However, distance education raises instructional issues that depend on whether course is taught synchronously, kind of technology used, and the outcomes. The article highlights adequate “Instructional Models” that are required in distance teacher training programs, these include: “Direct Instructional Model” (direct transmission of concept and skills), “Cognitive Model” (transmission of inductive reasoning skills) and “Social Model” (transmission of social norms and values). Donoghue argues that distance programs that combine face-to-face instruction, supervision, tutoring and modeling have greater chance of success. Further Donoghue points out that distance learning programs must prepare instructors and learners to succeed in distance environment through orientation, preparation, support and leadership. Donoghue towards the end of article points concerns (ethical issues on experimenting on students from poorest communities) and benefits (value for money) of “Teach for” movements. Various renowned research works are directly quoted in the article. For example: Zeichner (2008) work on models of alternative teacher training, Feistritzer (2005) work on “Troops to Teachers” program and Dale (2014) work on “Teach for” movement. According to my viewpoint, the advent of technology has successfully eliminated “distance barrier” and positively contributed to the establishment of alternative teacher preparation programs; however, the success of such programs are be taken with a grain of salt, due to lack of theoretical evidence suggesting improvement in teaching, while spending huge sums of money on them.

Seven Assessments of students and schools more effective than standardised tests

Deborah Meier in the article “Beyond Testing: Seven Assessments of Students and Schools are more effective than Standardized Tests” elaborate the inadequacy of standardized tests to measure the educational accomplishments. She argues that policymakers use standardized tests, with high stake decisions tied to the scores, for the evaluation of students, teachers, and educational policies. Standardized tests can be understood as a sort of map to provide bird’s eye view for rationalizing educational policies. She further argues that unfortunately “accountability of schools” and “high stake standardized tests” are often confused in public imagination and test scores are often seen as the quality of education provided by the schools. The author identifies few disadvantages of high stake standardized tests these include; tests take key decisions away from schools; teaching to test result in narrowing of curriculum; tests results correlate with race and class differences hence creating inequalities; tests limit student responses who search for only one correct answer; and tests lack validity (do not show true picture) and reliability (do not provide same results if tests are repeated). Deborah argues that seven assessment tests are more effective and valid, these include; student self assessment; teacher observation of students and their works; the descriptive review process; reading and math interviews; portfolios and public defense of student work; school review by outside experts; and school boards and town meetings. The main focus of Deborah’s article revolves around the critical analysis of the disadvantages of high stake standardized tests and suitable alternatives to these tests. She argues that cherry-picked research materials support standardized tests. According to Deborah numbers are meaningless without descriptors and any rank ordering is deceptive including the idea of “pass/fail” that is based upon delusion and substantial measurement error. Author presents his stance by concretely backing it up with appropriate evidence. She refers to work of esteemed authors and even provide personal anecdote. For example, she quotes James C. Scott (1989) views about how policymakers “see” the world with reference to Scott’s book “Seeing Like a State”. Deborah also provide personal anecdote (Deborah’s adventure) in which she states that her skill at taking a test was related to her skill of how test maker saw the world. According to me it is an irrefutable reality that standardized tests have both pros and cons. There certainly needs to be a system that can evaluate educational progress of institutes, teachers and students, and hence guide policy markers to make adequate policies. For this purpose standardized tests are crucial. Moreover, the seven assessment alternatives suggested by Deborah have an important limitation, in that the alternative assessments cannot be implemented on a larger scale.

THE SECOND DIGITAL DIVIDE: Unequal Access to Social Capital in the Online World

                                          

Shanyang Zhao and David Elesh in the article “The Second Digital Divide: Unequal Access to Social Capital in the Online World” elaborate upon the two divergent forms of “digital divides” that exist in the modern age (the age of Internet): firstly, the divide between those with access to valued online technologies (prominently Internet), and secondly, the divide between those with access to valued online social networks. The authors argue that the existing researches on the digital divide have mostly focused on the first divide, but the second form of divide is equally important. Hence their article mainly focuses on the second digital divide. Building on the work of renowned sociologists Goffman and Bourdieu, both authors argue that equal access to the Internet does not ensure equal access to “social resources” on the Internet, and access to valued online networks is presently unequal, reflecting inequalities in the offline world. Furthermore, the authors suggest that calling for equal access to the Internet will widen social gaps in society, rather than removing inequalities from the society. Both Zhao and Elesh in their article examined the issue of unequal access to “Social Capital” resulting from “social barriers” that the Internet failed to penetrate. Authors provide a sociological viewpoint of Bourdieu on the issue that states; online world is part of (derived from) real world that is stratified and unequal in distribution of goods and services, hence online world is unequal. The same normative rules “Norms” operating offline world also regulate human contact online, allowing certain individuals to acquire a greater share of valued online network resources. Although, Internet has solved technical problem of human contact over distance but the actualization of ubiquitous human connectivity requires social conditions that Internet cannot provide, that means even if “distance barrier” is removed there exists others barriers that curb the “Co-present” social interaction even by being “within range”. Both authors present their stance by concretely backing it up with appropriate evidence. Various renowned research works and quotations are directly quoted in the article. For example; the “age of Information and communication” McLuhan (1964: 248); world as “global village” Segaller (1998: 359); “technological solution to social problems” Lax (2001:2); concept of “with in range and co-presence” Goffman (1966:17); and “theory of Social Capital ” Bourdieu (2000:171). According to my viewpoint, the advent of technology has successfully eliminated “distance barrier” for access of information and communication; however, it has failed to remove class and social differences between people because these differences provide an opportunity for elites to maintain their domination and power.

NEPC Review: is Public Schooling a Public good? An analysis of schooling Externalities (Cato institute, May 2018)

Doris A. Santoro critically analyses the report “Is Public Schooling a Public good: An analysis of schooling Externalities” compiled by Cory DeAngelis for Cato institute. Doris argues that the recent report begins with Horace Mann’s claims that public schools are the “bedrock of a democratic society”, hence public schools should be available to all member of community. However Doris notices that the inadequately blend the “civic” and “economic” definitions of a public good. Doris further argues that despite the report begins with Mann’s vision of the role of public schools as “building a better society”, it then falsely shifts the analysis to the “economic value” of public schools as a market commodity. The report relies on a false equivalence of the civic and economic definitions of a public good, and advance a proposal for removal of government funding from public schools and introducing private schooling system based on education savings account (voucher) system. Apart from this, Doris argues that the Cato report’s limited review of existing literature continuously misleads the meaning, scope and implications, which leads to a portrayal of public schools as “agents of harm”. Doris further argues that the report’s imbalance; flawed logic and limited research base render the report of no use to policymakers. The main focus of Doris A Santoro’s article revolves around the critical analysis of the Cato Report and its findings. Doris argues that the findings of this report rest on an inadequate and cherry-picked research base. As public schooling does not meet the “economic criteria” for a public good, Doris argues that Cory DeAngelis smartly based his investigation on whether public schooling is “good for the public” through an examination of its effects, in terms of externalities. Despite of the fact that Public schools fail on this strictest economic definition, no social enterprise will entirely satisfy the non-rivalrous and non-excludable conditions of a “pure” public good provided by public schooling. Doris A Santoro presents his stance by concretely backing it up with appropriate evidence. He makes use of direct quotes and numerical figures. For example, he quotes Historian David Tyack views on Public schooling. In computing statistical data Doris rejects the view that voucher system would work realistically as voucher amount ($7024) is way below private school tuition fee ($11,633). According to me it is an irrefutable reality that education can widely contribute to the creation of a better society. Instead of abandoning public schooling altogether, both government and private sector should invest in public schooling because of the “public good” it brings. Even, Horace Mann’s vision of the “public good” was based on humanistic and democratic values that go beyond the narrow range employed by economic measurements. Public schooling contributes effectively and efficiently to the process of democracy.

How and why do we learn?

Nick McGuinn, in the article “ How and why do we learn? ”, elaborates upon the individualistic nature of learning with the example of Li’s learning experience (LLE). He narrates a passage about Li’s learning experience (LLE) taken from the story “A Bone from a Dry Sea” written by Peter Dickinson. Li traveled outside the territory of her tribe to explore the world outside her immediate environment. She saw a spider that rapidly wove a loose web. Although, she was frightened by the spider and wanted to go back, but the curiosity to know what spider was doing kept her stay there. She saw how the seed-head got trapped in the web and got eaten by spider. When she got back to her tribe she tried to make her web through grass stems but was unsuccessful, however, she finally managed to pull off a working shrimp-net by using gourd fiber. Nick argues that innovation and learning takes place when an individual take risk to move outside his immediate environment for the purpose of exploring. Moreover, Nick compared Li’s example to Eve and Prometheus and found a prominent similarity that both took risk for the sake of knowing (knowledge). Further, Nick highlighted different categories of intelligence using the work of Howard Gardner and with “knowledge” at the bottom while “evaluation” at top of the categories. Furthermore, Nick introduced preconditions that needed to be fulfilled before the knowledge could be acquired using work of Maslow’s “human beings hierarch of needs”, such as, physiological needs, safety needs and aesthetic needs. The main focus of the of the reading revolves around the research question, “ how and why do we learn?” According to Nick Mcguinn learning takes place as a result of individual’s curiosity to explore and take risk for the sake of knowledge. However, Ian Gregory in response to aforementioned article states, that Nick Mcguinn claims education to be a “moral enterprise”, however, as we are the inheritors of learning of previous generations, hence learning is rather a “social enterprise”. Gregory argues that humanity advance is not parallel by advance in moral wisdom. He further argues that “learning is presented as too much an individual triumph in (1) how learning occurred (2) what was learnt”. In the concluding paragraph Gregory argues that education is the selective transmission of a given society’s culture.  Nick McGuinn presents his stance by concretely backing it up with appropriate evidence. He makes use of works of various prestigious theorists. For example, he quotes; Li’s story from “A Bone from a Dry Sea” written by Peter Dickinson (1992); “Categories of intelligence” work of Howard Gardner; “Human Beings and Hierarchy of Needs” work of Maslow; “Eve and Prometheus” Metthews (1970). Moreover, Nick builds up his arguments with critical analysis of the work of these esteemed theorists.  According to me it is an irrefutable reality that learning is both a “moral” as well as a ”social” enterprise. Both individualistic learning and collective learning are equally important and divide between them is artificial as both complement each other. Individuals are part of larger society and they effectively contribute to the knowledge of society. The world has developed because of efforts of both individuals and society as a whole.

EDUCATION FOR A BETTER WORLD

Ian Davies in the article “education for a better world” elaborates upon the purpose of education, which is to prepare people to live a better individual life and contribute effectively to the society, for the creation of a better world. He defines education as a “moral enterprise”, wherein the role of teachers is to develop learners’ capacities to understand and develop commitment to universal human rights within political, economic, social, and cultural contexts. Four fundamental dilemmas identified by Ian Davies that obstruct the goal of developing “education for a better world” include; firstly, teachers need to find some balance (or understanding) between duties and rights; secondly, what sort of teaching is to be practiced (civil, political, or social); thirdly, expectations for student behavior in society (participator or merely spectator one); fourthly, can society be seen as a coherent single framework or as fragmented in identities, values, cultures, and political agendas. Ian Davies come up with four ways of developing education for a better world, these include; firstly, provision of equal opportunities in terms of level playing field and shared outcomes; secondly, provision of citizenship for legal status, identity, and capacity for action; thirdly, creation of “enterprise education” linking economy to education for achieving economic goals; fourthly, education for sustainability, quest for personal peace and harmony to political campaigns against nuclear conflicts and for environmental friendly global governance. While concluding Ian Davies argues that teachers should feel confident about their roles in society and try to make a difference, otherwise they are being disingenuous about their goals. The main focus of the of the reading revolves around the research question, “can education create a better world?” According to Ian Davies education can definitely create a better world if the hurdles in its way are overcome and recommendations provided by him are implemented. However, Nick McGuinn states in response to aforementioned article, that Ian Davies has issued a serious and difficult challenge for the teachers. Nick, moreover, argues that he is not convinced that our society believes in “education for a better world”, as our education system is dominated by traditional, work-oriented, subject discrete curriculum, and we are interested in “training” for the hierarchical world with limited material resources. Nevertheless, in his last line he states that “our planet is a fragile place, unless we rise to Ian Davies challenge, we have no future”. This last line of Nick beautifully sum up and address the research question, that it is a great challenge for education to create peace and prosperity in our world, but there is certainly a glimmer of hope and optimism. Ian Davies presents his stance by concretely backing it up with appropriate evidence. He makes use of direct and indirect quotes of various prestigious scholars. For example, he quotes; Freire’s assertion (Lister 1973) “education can not be neutral”; Heater (2000) framework of four dilemmas; Healstead and Taylor (2000) research about citizenship; Hahn (1998) linkage between education and democracy; Fukuyama (1992) “end of history” claims. Moreover, Ian Davies builds up his arguments on the basis of critical analysis of research papers of these esteemed scholars. According to me it is an irrefutable reality that education can widely contribute to the creation of a better society. John Dewey (in reading for session 2) rightly states, “What nutrition and reproduction are to physiological life, education is to social life”. Hence, the role of education is to create a better society by providing “value consensus”, agreement on general norms and values, and by transmission of these values from one generation to the next. These values also contribute effectively and efficiently to the process of democracy. Education can act as glue for keeping society together in harmony and peace. Yes indeed, education can lead to a prosperous, progressive and harmonious world.